Posted by KeighleyAstro on Feb 7, 2025 in Main |

Back to the Moon was the title of the presentation given at the January meeting of Keighley Astronomical society, by the ever popular Dr Sue Bowler. Dr Bowler is the current editor of the’ Astronomy and Geophysics’ publication and forum of the Royal Astronomical Society.

Dr Sue Bowler started her presentation by stating that mankind is going back to the Moon; but it’s not just the United States and Russia that are in the new race. They have competition from several other countries and increasing so from several worldwide private companies.

Dr Bowler explained that she has a fascination with the exploration of the Moon and that stems from the NASA Apollo programme.

As a primary school child she was enthralled with the first manned landing on the lunar surface in July 1969. Dr Bowler explained has to this day she still remembers the words of Astronaut Neil Armstrong after he had landed the lunar module of the moons surface “Huston, Tranquillity base here. The Eagle has landed”.

The first half of Dr Bowler’s presentation was about how and why the United States of America went to the Moon in the 1960’s and 1970’s. She pointed out that it had taken many missions into outer space to reach that achievement and that it had taken the knowledge, inventiveness and talent of a vast number of people. Andrew Chaikin has said in his book, ‘A man on the Moon’. “The lunar landing was a walk across a long high wire, and they were about to take the penultimate step”.

So Dr Bowler went on to explore what had gone before; and what had previously taken place that led up to that remarkable achievement. That took us back to 4th October 1957, and the placing of the first artificial satellite in Earth orbit.

Sputnik 1 was a little metal sphere with a diameter of 23 inches and a weight of 183 pounds. It beeped a radio signal as it circled the Earth. It was explained that Sputnik 1 was the catalyst for change. It shocked the United States, which had hoped to be the first to achieve this scientific feat .It increased Cold War tensions and the arms race. It led to the development of new space and weapons programs in the United States. It inspired the creation of NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the United States accelerated its space program, which led to the Apollo programme four years later.

The Space Race

The ‘Space race’ started and the Americans were left behind, playing catch up. The Russians of the USSR as it was then called had all the early successes. Dr Bowler pointed out that the USSR, sent the first human into space, and made the first soft landings on other planets.
In 1961, the Soviet Union put the first human into space.
In 1964, the Soviet Union launched Voskhod 1, the first multi-person spacecraft.
In 1965, Aleksei Leonov performed the first space walk on Voskhod 2.
The Soviet Union led the first interplanetary probes to Venus and Mars, making several successful soft landings on both planets in the 1960s and 1970s.
To add insult to injury, the United States didn’t perform very well in those early days. They had many failures and several rockets blew up before they either left the launch pad or reached beyond Earths atmosphere.

Dr Bowler stated that this all changed after president John F. Kennedy’s gave a speech at Rice University in Houston, Texas on 12th September 1962. In the speech, he announced the United States’ goal of landing a man on the moon before the end of the decade. In that memorable speech president Kennedy said that the goal was difficult and expensive, but that it was important for space exploration and for the best use of the country’s skills and energies. He said that the goal would require a national commitment of resources, scientific and technical expertise, and discipline. He said that the goal would be achieved during the term of some of the people in attendance at the speech. He said that the goal would be achieved because space is there, and that the country was willing to accept the challenge.

Project Apollo

Dr Bowler said that the Apollo programme had been worked out quite early on in the space race time line. The Mercury space missions were underway placing the first individual American astronauts into Earth orbit. Project Apollo was conceived in 1960 as a three-person spacecraft during President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s administration. It was the third US human space flight program to fly, preceded by Project Gemini conceived in 1961 to extend space flight capability in support of Apollo.

To reach the moon, the Americans needed to develop a powerful rocket system like the Saturn V, capable of launching a spacecraft with astronauts out of Earth’s gravity, then navigate it to the lunar surface using advanced.

Guidance systems, and design a lunar module that could land on the moon and safely return to orbit around the moon to rendezvous with the command module for the journey back to Earth; all while overcoming the challenges of radiation exposure and extreme temperature fluctuations in space.

The key elements included:-

The Saturn V rocket:
This massive, multi-stage rocket provided the necessary thrust to escape Earth’s gravity and reach the moon.

Apollo spacecraft:
This consisted of a command module (for the journey back to Earth), a service module (for propulsion), and a lunar module (for landing on the moon).

Advanced guidance systems:
Precise navigation technology was required to accurately target the moon. Which was mainly done with people using slide rulers and early calculators as computer technology was still in its infancy.

Space suits and life support systems:
Astronauts needed specialized suits to survive the harsh lunar environment.

Lunar landing technology:
The lunar module had to be designed to land on the moon’s surface and then take off again.

Project Gemini

Dr Bowler talked about the Gemini space program. Its goal was to prepare NASA for the Apollo program by testing technologies and procedures for the moon landing. The program ran from 1964 to 1966. The goals of the Gemini missions were:-

To test astronauts’ ability to fly long-duration missions and perform extravehicular activities (EVAs). To test how to rendezvous and dock two spacecraft in orbit. Develop methods for re-entering Earth’s atmosphere and landing precisely. Test equipment and systems, including the Astronaut Manoeuvring Unit (AMU) and to study the effects of long periods of weightlessness on astronauts.

Dr Bowler focused on the Gemini VIII mission. Which was the sixth crewed Earth orbiting spacecraft of the Gemini series, carrying astronauts Neil Armstrong and David Scott. The primary mission objectives were to perform rendezvous and four docking tests with the Agena target vehicle and to execute an ExtraVehicular Activity (EVA) experiment. Other objectives included parking the Agena in a 410 km circular orbit, performing a rendezvous with the Agena, conduct systems evaluation, evaluating the auxiliary tape memory unit, and demonstration of controlled re-entry. Ten technological, medical, and scientific experiments were carried on board.

On the morning of 16th March 1966, at the Cape Kennedy Air Force Station, now the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida, workers at Launch Pad 19 strapped Armstrong and Scott into their Gemini VIII capsule. At nearby Launch Pad 14, the Atlas rocket carrying the Agena target blasted off precisely on time and placed the target into its correct orbit. Gemini VIII took off on schedule and reached orbit six minutes later. A team of controllers at the Mission Control Centre (MCC) at MSC, led by Flight Director John D. Hodge, monitored the launch and the rendezvous. Gemini VIII astronaut James A. Lovell served as the capsule communicator, the astronaut in the MCC who spoke directly with the crew in orbit.

Armstrong and Scott began the rendezvous with the Agena, firing the spacecraft’s thrusters in a series of manoeuvres to close the distance between the two spacecraft. At a range of 206 miles, they established radar contact with their target and spotted it visually from 87 miles away, gleaming in the sunlight. Armstrong brought Gemini VIII within 150 feet of the Agena and manoeuvred around the target as Scott visually inspected it.

Then Armstrong brought the two spacecraft to within two feet of each other. Final checks complete, Armstrong received the call from the ground, “Go ahead and dock.” At a relative velocity of one foot per second, Armstrong brought Gemini VIII in for the final docking with the Agena, reporting to the ground, “Flight, we are docked.” After completing electrical connections between the two spacecraft, Scott commanded the Agena’s thrusters to roll the combined vehicle 90 degrees, Armstrong telling Lovell that it had “gone quite well.”

Passing out of communications range over the Indian Ocean, Armstrong and Scott noticed their spacecraft began an unexpected roll. Assuming a problem had occurred with the Agena, Scott turned off its thrusters while Armstrong reactivated the Gemini’s to regain control over the spacecraft. The action worked temporarily, but the vehicle soon began unwanted motions in all three axes and at higher rates. Glancing at the instrument panel, Armstrong noticed the Gemini’s fuel supply had dropped to 30%, and realized the problem was with their craft and not the Agena. Armstrong quickly undocked but, rid of the heavier Agena, the Gemini spacecraft began tumbling at much higher rates, reaching a roll rate of one rotation per second. Coming back into communications range, Scott reported to a stunned Mission control, “We have serious problems here”.

“We’re tumbling end over end.” To regain control of the spacecraft, the astronauts shut down the main thruster system and activated the re-entry system thrusters. With this action, they stabilised the spacecraft, but mission rules dictated that once they activated the re-entry system, they must land at the next available opportunity. Scott’s ambitious space walk and the additional docking tests were cancelled. The post-mission analysis revealed that an electrical short circuit had caused thruster number 8 to stick in an open position, creating the wild gyrations and depleting the onboard fuel supply.

Instead of the planned splashdown in the western Atlantic Ocean and recovery by the U.S.S. Boxer, Gemini VIII now targeted a preplanned contingency area in the western Pacific Ocean 500 miles east of the Japanese island of Okinawa. A backup recovery ship, the destroyer U.S.S. Leonard P. Mason, already assigned to the general area, immediately steamed toward the splashdown point. Aboard Gemini VIII, the disappointed astronauts fired their spacecraft’s retrorockets in the darkness over south-central Africa.

Following the fiery re-entry through the Earth’s atmosphere, the Gemini capsule deployed its parachute and splashed down only 1.6 miles from its aim point after an abbreviated flight of 10 hours 41 minutes.

Although Armstrong and Scott distinguished themselves during the in-flight emergency, NASA didn’t assign an all-rookie crew to a space flight again until the Skylab 4 mission in 1973. Both excelled in their later astronaut careers, Armstrong as the first man to step on the lunar surface during Apollo 11 in 1969, and Scott as the first man to drive on the Moon during Apollo 15 in 1971. They were the only Gemini crew whose both members walked on the Moon.

The Gemini programme achieved, the first space walks (EVAs), demonstrating rendezvous and docking capabilities between spacecraft, achieving long-duration space flights, developing orbital manoeuvring technology, and laying the groundwork for the Apollo moon landing missions by testing necessary skills and equipment for extended space travel.

Dr Bowler in highlighting the flight of Gemini VIII, pointed out that it was qualities that Neil Armstrong displayed in the face of adversity during that mission that lead to him being selected for the first moon landing mission. He was known for his clarity of thought and dynamic quick problem solving skills. He always displayed being calm and in control during a crisis. Armstrong was known for his mild manner and lack of ego. He was able to keep calm under pressure. She said Armstrong’s life story read like pages from an adventure novel. He: earned his pilot license at age 15, flew 78 missions in the Korean War as a Navy fighter pilot, test piloted experimental rocket planes that flew to the edge of space at altitudes of over 200,000.

Project Apollo

Returning to the Apollo programme. Dr Bowler started with the tragedy of Apollo. The mission was to be the first crewed flight of Apollo, and was scheduled to launch on 21st February 1967. But on 27th January 1967 three astronauts were in the command module capsule undergoing pre-flight tests. Virgil Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee lost their lives when a fire swept through the command module.

The exhaustive investigation of the fire established that a spark from a faulty electrical connection had ignited the pressured oxygen rich capsule. Extensive reworking of the Apollo command modules postponed crewed launches until NASA officials cleared them for flight. Apollo schedules were suspended for nearly a year. Dr Bowler said that she believes the lessons learnt from Apollo 1 ensured the high success rate of the later Apollo missions.

The next manned Apollo was in October 1968 when Apollo 7 went into Earth orbit. It tested the Saturn V rocket the command module and the lunar lander and docking procedures etc. Despite the fact that all three crew members had head colds for most of their time in orbit, the flight was considered a complete success, achieving virtually all of its objectives. The success of Apollo 7 paved the way for Apollo 8’s flight to the Moon just two months later.

Apollo 8 (December 21st to 27th 1968) was the first crewed spacecraft to successfully orbit the moon.
The mission was critical to proving that the Saturn V launch vehicle and life support systems could send humans to the moon and return them safely to Earth. The objects were to test out the ability to get a crew to and from lunar orbit, no lunar module (lander) was included in the mission.

Dr Bowler said. Apollo 8 taught NASA that the integrated system of the Saturn V launch vehicle and the Apollo spacecraft could send humans to the moon and verified that the life support systems would safely sustain the three-person crew for the duration of the mission.

She highlighted that this was the mission that the famous photograph titled “Earth rise” was taken by Jim Anders. The unscheduled “Earthrise” event captured on camera from lunar orbit. This image galvanised a fledgling environmental movement and forever changed humanity’s perspective of Earth. The Apollo 8 mission came at the end of a tragic year in which Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert Kennedy had both been assassinated. Apollo 8 and the “Earth rise” photo offered a bit of optimism in a very bleak moment in history.

Apollo 9 (3rd to 13th March 1968). This mission accomplished many achievements, including:-

First crewed lunar module flight. The Apollo 9 mission was the first time astronauts flew in the lunar module, the spacecraft that would land on the moon. First docking of two crewed spacecraft. The Apollo 9 mission was the first time two crewed spacecraft docked with each other. First space walk in the new Apollo spacesuit. Astronaut Russell Schweickart tested the new Apollo spacesuit, which was the first to have its own life support system.

First test of the complete Apollo spacecraft. The Apollo 9 mission was the first time the entire Apollo spacecraft was tested, including the command and service module, lunar module, and Saturn V rocket. Simulated lunar surface descent. The Apollo 9 crew performed a simulated lunar surface descent while in Earth orbit.

Multispectral terrain photography. The Apollo 9 crew conducted a scientific investigation using four Hasselblad 70 mm cameras to take photographs of the Earth.
Set the stage for the lunar landing. The success of the Apollo 9 mission proved that the lunar module was ready for crewed space flight and the lunar landing.

Apollo 10 (18th to 26th May 1969) was the second Apollo mission to orbit the Moon. Dr Bowler stated the mission was basically a dry run to the Moon and also had many achievements including:-

Dress rehearsal. The mission was a practice run for the first moon landing, demonstrating all major objectives except the landing itself.

Lunar module flight. The crew flew a fully functional lunar module within 16 kilometers of the moon’s surface. Photography. The crew took photographs of the moon and potential landing sites. Speed record. The crew returned to Earth at a record speed of 24,791 miles per hour. Distance record.

The crew travelled farther from Earth than any other space crew. Engine and radar tests. The crew tested the descent and ascent engines, as well as the landing and rendezvous radars. Radio system test. The crew tested the Lunar Module radio system.

Apollo 11 (16th to 24th July 1969). The mission that placed the first human beings on the surface of another planet for the first time.

Dr Bowler showed a photograph of the Lunar Module in space flight before it landed on the Moon and she pointed out the four large legs of the lander with the wide pads and the metal probes attached to them. This design was because NASA had no real ideal of what the surface of the Moon was made of. She stated that the Russian probably had a better idea because the USSR had already landed several probes on the Moon by this time. It had been suggested that the surface was made up of several feet of soft dust.

In answer to the question what did Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin do whilst they were walking on the lunar surface? Dr Bowler pointed out that the Passive Seismic Experiment was the first seismometer placed on the Moon’s surface. It detected lunar “moonquakes” and provided information about the internal structure of the Moon. This experiment studied the propagation of seismic waves through the Moon and provided the first detailed look at the Moon’s internal structure. This instrument contained four seismometers powered by two panels of solar cells, which converted solar energy into electricity. It used three long-period seismometers and one short- period vertical seismometer for measuring meteorite impacts and moonquakes, recording about 100 to 200 hits by meteorites during its lifetime.

Another science item was the reflector array that was left on the Moon’s surface and is still in operation to this day. The longevity of the experiment can be attributed at least in part to its simplicity: The arrays themselves require no power. Four telescopes at observatories in New Mexico, France, Italy and Germany fire lasers at them, measuring the time that it takes for a laser pulse to bounce off the reflectors and return to Earth. This allows the distance to be measured to within a fraction of an inch (a few millimetres), and scientists at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory analyse the results.

Laser ranging measurements have deepened our understanding of the dance between the Moon and Earth as well. The Moon orbits Earth at an average distance of 239,000 miles (385,000 kilometres), but lunar laser ranging has accurately shown that the distance between the two increases by 1.5 inches (3.8 centimetres) a year.

So we now know from the rocks sampled at the Apollo landing sites that the Moon is basically made up of basaltic rock. A dark volcanic rock that can be found on the Earth and is produced by molten lava from volcanoes. It is however different on the Moon because there is no atmosphere to weather the rock, but it is impacted by meteorites of all sizes from outer space.

It’s also broken down by cosmic rays and this produces this fine dusty material. Displaying a photograph of Apollo 17 Astronaut Gene Cernan. Dr Bowler explained that Moon dust covered everything with is fine grained powder. The word she used was ‘pervasive’.

Lunar geology

Dr Bowler said that in 1971, astronauts aboard the Apollo 15 mission collected a Moon rock that was not the usual grey colour. It was white and has since been called the ’Genesis rock’.

Chemical analysis of the Genesis Rock indicated it is an anorthosite, composed mostly of a type of plagioclase feldspar known as anorthite. The rock was formed in the early stages of the Solar System, at least 4 billion years ago. It was originally thought they had found a piece of the Moon’s primordial crust, but later analysis initially showed that the rock was only 4.1billion years old, which is younger than the Moon itself, and was formed after the Moon’s crust had already solidified. This rock is evidence that not long after the Earth and Moon were formed, the Moon was struck by another planetary object about the size of Mars.

The collision occurred when Earth and Moon were both proto-planets, early in Earth’s history. The impact broke apart the impacting planet and was a tremendously energetic collision explained Dr Bowler. So much so that it melted the Earth down to the core. The impact sent clouds of debris and vapour into orbit around Earth. The debris collected and coalesced into the Moon over months or years. So the Moon in its early formation was a glowing ball of molten rock, and as it cooled minerals such as anorthosite was formed.

Placing a photograph of the Moon on the screen, Dr Bowler stated that the ‘Darker’ areas of the Moon are made up of basalt rock and are evidence of later impact on the lunar surface. Its what are referred to as the highlands, which have a lighter colour to them that are thought to be the original crust of the Moon.

Learning about the collision, scientists have studied lunar samples and used computer simulations to piece together the story of the collision. However, there are still some questions, such as why there aren’t remnants of the impacting planet on Earth. We don’t know how the early Earth was formed or how Life evolved on the Earth. So she stated this is another good reason to return to the Moon to learn more about how the Earth was formed.

Water on the Moon

Looking at the far side of the Moon Dr Bowler pointed out the southern polar region on the far side of the moon that is primarily referred to as the “South Pole-Aitken Basin,” a massive impact crater that is one of the largest and oldest features on the lunar surface. It’s considered one of the biggest impact craters in the solar system and this region is particularly intriguing for scientists due to the possibility of finding water ice trapped in permanently shadowed craters within the basin.

Orbiters from several countries have explored the region around the lunar south pole. Extensive studies were conducted by the Lunar Orbiters, Clementine, Lunar Prospector, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Kaguya, and Chandrayaan-1, that discovered the presence of lunar water. NASA’s LCROSS mission found a significant amount of water in a crater called Cabeus. The LCROSS mission deliberately crashed into the floor of Cabeus and from samples found that it contained nearly 5% water.

Dr Bowler said that scientists are eager to find out where that water has come from. The Moon was thought to be a dry planet formed from molten rock, and somehow water has accumulated in these deep dark craters. This could provide answers as where the water that formed the oceans and seas on Earth originated from.

The Lunar Crater Radio Telescope

There are also a large number of scientists that use radio astronomy who would like to use a large crater on the far side of the Moon

The Lunar Crater Radio Telescope (LCRT) is a proposal by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) to create an ultra-long-wavelength (that is, wavelengths greater than 10 m, corresponding to frequencies below 30 MHz) radio telescope inside a lunar crater on the far side of the Moon. The reason for building the LCRT on the far side of the Moon would be to avoid interference faced by radio telescopes on the Earth’s surface. The Moon would block many sources of radio interference originating on Earth, and would avoid the problems that come from Earth’s ionosphere at long radio wavelengths.

If completed, the telescope would have a structural diameter of 1.3 km, and the reflector would be 350m in diameter. Robotic lift wires and an anchoring system would enable origami deployment of the parabolic reflector.

The concept eliminates the need to transport prohibitively heavy material to the Moon and utilises robots to automate the construction process. Instead of using thousands of reflective panels to focus incoming radio waves, the LCRT would be made of thin wire mesh in the centre of the crater. One spacecraft would deliver the mesh, and a separate lander would deposit DuAxel rovers to build the dish over several days or weeks.

Dr Bowler said that LCRT would be able to look for evidence from very outer reaches of the universe that would help us understand how the universe was created.

The return of the race to the Moon

Dr Bowler said that there is under way a global race to return humans to the lunar surface; a goal that the US, China, Europe and Russia have announced they plan to achieve between 2024 and 2030. There are several reasons for this renewed space rush.
The unexpected discovery of water on the Moon in 2008 boosted its strategic importance as a platform for space exploration towards Mars and beyond.

Oxygen and hydrogen could be sourced from lunar ice to make rocket propellants, while other Moon resources like helium-3, an energy-producing isotope, could power future fusion rockets for the next step in the space race: sending people to Mars.

Permanent lunar colonies would also support the long-term observation of the Earth’s land surface, biosphere and atmosphere, improving scientists’ ability to predict climate, weather and natural hazards.

Named after Apollo’s sister in Greek mythology, NASA’s Artemis programme aims to return crewed missions to the Moon in 2024 in partnership with private-sector companies.

Orbiting satellites are also making new discoveries. NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is most famous for discovering water in ice and rocks at the Moon’s north pole in 2009. But more recently, it has uncovered areas ideal for future human settlement. Images from LRO revealed places where the Sun shines 96% of the time. This would mean solar panels powering a Moon base would never experience total darkness for more than a 24 hour stretch.

Meanwhile, two NASA ARTEMIS probes are orbiting the Moon to see how the solar wind electrifies and weathers the lunar surface. Data from these probes have revealed how the Moon’s small, localised magnetic fields act like sunscreen. These fields deflect solar wind away, creating patterns of dark and light swirls on the surface.

The most exciting current mission though is the Chinese Chang’e 4 robotic lander and rover. On 3rd January 2019 Chang’e 4 became the first to land on the far side of the Moon. It is exploring the South Pole-Aitken basin, thought to be a section of exposed lunar mantle. Sampling this region could reveal information about the formation and structure of the Moon. New findings are being reported every week from the mission.

The program aims to facilitate a crewed lunar landing in the 2030s and possibly the building of an outpost near the south pole. The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program has started to incorporate private investment from individuals and enterprises for the first time, a move aimed at accelerating aerospace innovation, cutting production costs, and promoting military–civilian relationships.

Chang’e 4 marks the first major United States-China collaboration in space exploration since the 2011 Congressional ban. Scientists from both countries had regular contact prior to the landing. This included talks about observing plumes and particles lofted from the lunar surface by the probe’s rocket exhaust during the landing to compare the results with theoretical predictions, but NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) was not in the right position for this during the landing. The Americans informed Chinese scientists about its satellites in orbit around the Moon, while the Chinese shared with American scientists the longitude, latitude, and timing of Chang’e 4’s landing.

China has agreed to a request from NASA to use the Chang’e 4 probe and Queqiao relay satellite in future American Moon missions.

Project Artemis

The Artemis program is NASA’s plan to return humans to the Moon, explained Dr Bowler. It will establish a long-term presence, and prepare for future missions to Mars. The program’s name comes from the Greek goddess of the moon, Artemis, the twin sister of Apollo. Key elements of the project are:-

The Orion spacecraft. A spacecraft that launched on 16th November 16 2022 as part of the Artemis I mission.
The Space Launch System (SLS). A rocket that’s one of the most powerful in the world.
The Lunar Gateway. A small space station in lunar orbit that will support missions to and from the lunar surface.

The Lunar Gateway, is a space station that is planned to be assembled in orbit around the Moon. The Gateway is intended to serve as a communication hub, science laboratory, and habitation module for astronauts as part of the Artemis programme. It is a multinational collaborative project: participants include NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), and the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC). The Gateway is planned to be the first space station beyond low Earth orbit.

The Artemis program involves collaboration with commercial and international partners, such as the European Space agency and private companies including Space X and aerospace companies across America and across America’s strategist allies.

SpaceX’s Starship

This is a spacecraft that will land humans on the moon as part of NASA’s Artemis program.

How will SpaceX’s Starship be used?

Artemis III
The first crewed landing of Starship on the moon, near the lunar South Pole. This mission will include moonwalks and surveys for a future base.

Future missions.Starship will deliver supplies, equipment, and science payloads for further exploration.

Why is SpaceX involved in Artemis?

SpaceX was selected by NASA to develop the Starship Human Landing System (HLS). SpaceX’s price was the lowest of all the companies that bid on the contract.

What are the challenges with Artemis?

Development challenges with SpaceX and Lockheed Martin have delayed the Artemis program.

The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified the development of the Raptor engine as a top risk. The GAO also found that SpaceX had limited progress on in-orbit refuelling and cryogenic propellant storage.

What’s next for Artemis?
Artemis II is planned for 2026 as the first crewed flight of Orion and the SLS spacecraft.

Artemis IV is planned for 2028 as the second crewed lunar landing.

Implementation of the Artemis program will require additional programs, projects, and commercial launchers to support the construction of the Lunar Gateway, launch re-supply missions to the station, and deploy numerous robotic spacecraft and instruments to the lunar surface. Several precursor robotic missions are being coordinated through the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program.

Who owns the Moon?

No country legally owns the moon, according to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. The treaty states that the moon is the “province of all mankind” and that all exploration must benefit all nations.
The Outer Space Treaty is a set of guidelines that govern how nations can use space. The treaty applies to private companies as well as countries. The treaty does not establish an international authority to regulate the moon. Instead, it relies on treaties that sovereign states choose to adhere to.

The treaty states that nations must comply with international rules, including not establishing military bases or using weapons on the moon.
Despite the treaty, some people have claimed to own the moon, including:-
A. Dean Lindsay, who claimed ownership of all extraterrestrial objects in 1936.
James T. Mangan, who founded the Nation of Celestial Space in 1949.
Dennis Hope, who claimed to have registered ownership of the moon in 1980.
Martin Juergens, who claimed that Prussian King Frederick the Great gifted the moon to his ancestors in 1756.

Dr Bowler explained that although Space craft and launches are regulated by individual laws in each country, there is no law appertaining to outer space and the Moon and planets. There is no concern at the present time for planetary protection.

A plan to deposit some human remains on the moon as part of a rocket launch prompted criticism from the head of the Navajo Nation, who says it would be a desecration of the celestial body sacred to many tribes. Buu Nygren, president of the Navajo Nation, urged NASA or other government officials to address the tribe’s concerns before such missions. “The moon holds a sacred place in Navajo cosmology,” he wrote. “The suggestion of transforming it into a resting place for human remains is deeply disturbing and unacceptable to our people and many other tribal nations.”

This highlights said Dr Bowler that there is just no regulation and the exploration of Space and the planets is just like the ‘Wild West’.

There are genuine concerns about what will happen to the Moon. A GPS-like navigation system for the moon is being developed by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and other organisations. This system will be critical for future lunar missions, including crewed and robotic operations. It is needed if we are going to maintain a presence on the Moon. There are no accurate maps of the Moon. There is no time on the Moon, nothing to regulate the passage of time as we do here on Earth. But there will soon become a time when such an agreed measurement will be required.

Going back to the question of water on the Moon and whatever other resources are on the Moon. Who owns these resources? At this point in time it’s going to be who gets to them first.

If we are to return to the Moon on a permanent bases. Structures will have to be buried to provide protection from the flares of radiation that hit the Moon unpredictably. Dr Bowler said that this will bring us back to a problem already mentioned. Dust, Moon dust, just gets everywhere it ubiquitous. It will cause problems. Besides being very dangerous to breath in it will get in the way of anything mechanical. She stated that all equipment would have to be designed and built to take this into account.

Dr Bowler said that radio astronomy is suffering now due to interference from satellites. Satellites communicate with each other and with ground stations and they are becoming a barrier to radio astronomers. If there is no laws or regulation regarding the Moon satellites orbiting the Moon will scupper projects such as the proposed LCRT.

Dr Bowler concluded her presentation by stating that she is worried and concerned about the future exploration of the Moon. The lack of regulation and the dash for exploitation of resources will mean that the science will be left out.

Dr Bowler then spent another twenty minutes answering many questions asked of her by the society members present.